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Taborek, J, xlv-lvi Taitel and Dukler flow regime map, for horizontal and inclined gas- liquid flows, Tamura et al correlation, for surface tension of mixtures, Taylor Forge method, for mechanical design of flanges, comparison with EN13445 method, Taylor series expansion, Teflon, use in heat transfer enhancement: TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association): Temperature distribution: Tenders for heat exchangers, Terminal free fall velocity, in fluidization, Testing and inspection of heat exchangers: Tetrabromomethane: 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane: Tetrachloroethylene: Tetradecane: Tetradecene: Tetrachlorodifluoroethane (Refrigerant 112): 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (Refrigerant R134a): Tetrafluoromethane (Refrigerant 14): Tetrahydrofuran: 1,2,3,4-Tetramethylbenzene: 1,2,3,5-Tetramethylbenzene: 1,2,4,5-Tetramethylbenzene: Thermal conductivity: Thermal contact conductance (TCC), Thermal contact resistance (TCR), Thermal design, constructional features affecting, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers Thermal diffusivity: Thermal expansion coefficient: Thermal leakage in F-type shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Thermal mixing in plate heat exchangers, Thermal stress: Thermocal, heat transfer media, Thermodynamic cycles in refrigeration, Thermodynamic properties: Thermodynamic surface in radiative heat transfer, Thermoexel surface, for enhancement of boiling, Thermofluids, heat transfer medium, Thermosiphon Theta-NTU method: Thickness of boundary layers (displacement, momentum, energy, density, temperature), Thin-wall-type expansion bellows, Thiophene: Thome, J R
Augmentation of Boiling and Evaporation Boiling and Evaporation
Three-phase flows: Tie rods in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Tinker method for shell-side heat transfer in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Titanium and titanium alloys, T-junctions, loss coefficients in, Tolerances Toluene: m-Toluidine: Tong F-factor method, for critical heat flux with nonuniform heating, Tooth, A S, Total emissivity in gases, Transcendental equations in transient conduction, Transient behavior: Transition boiling: Transition flow, heat transfer in free convective flow over vertical surfaces in, Transitional flow, in combined free and forced convection, Transmission of thermal radiation in solids: Transmissivity of solids: Transport properties: Transverse flow, combined free and forced convection in, Treated surfaces, for augmentation of heat transfer, Triangular duct: Triangular fins, in plate fin exchangers, Triangular relationship, in annular gas-liquid flow, Tribromomethane: 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (Refrigerant 140a): Trichloroethylene: Trichlorofluoromethane (Refrigerant 11) Trichloromethane (Chloroform) (Refrigerant 20): 1,1,2-Trichlorotrifluoroethane (Refrigerant 113): Tridecane: Tridecene: Triethylamine: 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane (Refrigerant 143a): Trifluoromethane (Refrigerant 23): Trimethylamine: 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene: 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene: 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene: 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane (Isooctane): Triphenylmethane: Triple interface (gas/solid/liquid), True temperature difference, in double pipe exchangers, Truelove, J S, Tsotsas, E Tube-baffle damage, in heat exchangers, Tube banks, finned: Tube banks, plain: Tube banks, roughened tubes, effect of roughness on Euler number in, Tube bundles: Tube counts, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers: Tube end attachment, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Tube inserts, heat exchangers with, Tube-in-plate extended surface configurations, fin efficiency of, Tube plates, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers: Tube rupture in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Tube-to-tubesheet attachment, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Tubes: Tucker, R J, Tunnel dryer, Turbine exhaust condensers: Turbines, lost work in Turbulence: Turbulent boundary layers: Turbulent buffeting, as source of tube vibration, Turbulent energy, integral equation for, Turbulent flow: Turnarounds, in heat exchangers, Turner, C W, Twisted tapes: Twisted tube heat exchangers, Twisted tubes Two-equation models, for turbulent boundary layers, Two-phase loop with capillary pump, Two-phase flows:

Index

HEDH
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T
Taborek, J, xlv-lvi Taitel and Dukler flow regime map, for horizontal and inclined gas- liquid flows, Tamura et al correlation, for surface tension of mixtures, Taylor Forge method, for mechanical design of flanges, comparison with EN13445 method, Taylor series expansion, Teflon, use in heat transfer enhancement: TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association): Temperature distribution: Tenders for heat exchangers, Terminal free fall velocity, in fluidization, Testing and inspection of heat exchangers: Tetrabromomethane: 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane: Tetrachloroethylene: Tetradecane: Tetradecene: Tetrachlorodifluoroethane (Refrigerant 112): 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (Refrigerant R134a): Tetrafluoromethane (Refrigerant 14): Tetrahydrofuran: 1,2,3,4-Tetramethylbenzene: 1,2,3,5-Tetramethylbenzene: 1,2,4,5-Tetramethylbenzene: Thermal conductivity: Thermal contact conductance (TCC), Thermal contact resistance (TCR), Thermal design, constructional features affecting, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers Thermal diffusivity: Thermal expansion coefficient: Thermal leakage in F-type shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Thermal mixing in plate heat exchangers, Thermal stress: Thermocal, heat transfer media, Thermodynamic cycles in refrigeration, Thermodynamic properties: Thermodynamic surface in radiative heat transfer, Thermoexel surface, for enhancement of boiling, Thermofluids, heat transfer medium, Thermosiphon Theta-NTU method: Thickness of boundary layers (displacement, momentum, energy, density, temperature), Thin-wall-type expansion bellows, Thiophene: Thome, J R
Augmentation of Boiling and Evaporation Boiling and Evaporation
Three-phase flows: Tie rods in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Tinker method for shell-side heat transfer in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Titanium and titanium alloys, T-junctions, loss coefficients in, Tolerances Toluene: m-Toluidine: Tong F-factor method, for critical heat flux with nonuniform heating, Tooth, A S, Total emissivity in gases, Transcendental equations in transient conduction, Transient behavior: Transition boiling: Transition flow, heat transfer in free convective flow over vertical surfaces in, Transitional flow, in combined free and forced convection, Transmission of thermal radiation in solids: Transmissivity of solids: Transport properties: Transverse flow, combined free and forced convection in, Treated surfaces, for augmentation of heat transfer, Triangular duct: Triangular fins, in plate fin exchangers, Triangular relationship, in annular gas-liquid flow, Tribromomethane: 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (Refrigerant 140a): Trichloroethylene: Trichlorofluoromethane (Refrigerant 11) Trichloromethane (Chloroform) (Refrigerant 20): 1,1,2-Trichlorotrifluoroethane (Refrigerant 113): Tridecane: Tridecene: Triethylamine: 1,1,1-Trifluoroethane (Refrigerant 143a): Trifluoromethane (Refrigerant 23): Trimethylamine: 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene: 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene: 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene: 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane (Isooctane): Triphenylmethane: Triple interface (gas/solid/liquid), True temperature difference, in double pipe exchangers, Truelove, J S, Tsotsas, E Tube-baffle damage, in heat exchangers, Tube banks, finned: Tube banks, plain: Tube banks, roughened tubes, effect of roughness on Euler number in, Tube bundles: Tube counts, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers: Tube end attachment, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Tube inserts, heat exchangers with, Tube-in-plate extended surface configurations, fin efficiency of, Tube plates, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers: Tube rupture in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Tube-to-tubesheet attachment, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Tubes: Tucker, R J, Tunnel dryer, Turbine exhaust condensers: Turbines, lost work in Turbulence: Turbulent boundary layers: Turbulent buffeting, as source of tube vibration, Turbulent energy, integral equation for, Turbulent flow: Turnarounds, in heat exchangers, Turner, C W, Twisted tapes: Twisted tube heat exchangers, Twisted tubes Two-equation models, for turbulent boundary layers, Two-phase loop with capillary pump, Two-phase flows:
U V W X Y Z
T Thome, J R
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Boiling and Evaporation

DOI 10.1615/hedhme.a.000228

2.13.4 Boiling and evaporation

Sujoy Kumar Saha and Gian Piero Celata

A. Introduction

Microcooling elements in micro-thermal-mechanical systems (MTMS) are a modern high-end technology. Microchannel heat sinks are extensively used in high-heat flux systems, e.g., microelectronic, optical and microfluidic devices, high-performance supercomputers, electric vehicles, advanced military avionics, power and laser devices, very-high temperature gas-cooled reactors and liquid metal fast reactors, radiator panels of spacecraft, thermal control of satellites, etc. In pharmaceutical and chemical industries, by integrating heat exchangers, mixers, and reactors as a block of microcomponents, it is possible to achieve a significant decrease in the system size. Heat exchangers based on microscale channels are used in automotive fuel cells where the heat dissipation system should be compact and contain a minimum number of components. The heat dissipation rate is extremely high in these devices. Phase-change processes such as flow boiling are very important in such devices due to possible higher heat transfer coefficients and much lower temperature gradients along the heat exchanger. In addition, two-phase microchannel heat sinks are one of the strongest candidates for heat removal devices in high-heat flux environments by virtue of their large surface area-to-volume ratio, compact dimensions, and low flow rate requirements. Flow boiling in microchannels has drawn considerable attention from researchers worldwide. Microchannels are used in MEMS and high-end microprocessor cooling applications. Microchannels are used in applications involving high operational pressures (up to 600 bar) and temperatures (1,000 °C). There is a scale effect that becomes evident when the hydraulic diameter is less than the capillary length, i.e., [(σ/g)(ρl - ρv)]0.5.

In microchannels, the hydraulic diameter of the channels is smaller than the capillary length. Identifying the threshold, or the transition band, beyond which a two-phase flow may be considered "micro" is an open issue. The channel classification has been given by Kandlikar and Grande (2003). This classification should be used as a mere guide indicating the size range, rather than rigid demarcations based on specific criteria. Relevant literature in this direction would be Kawaji and Chung (2003). The confinement number (Co), as the distinguishing parameter, gives only a rough idea,

\[\label{eq1} \mbox{Co}=\frac 1D\sqrt{\dfrac{\sigma}{(\rho_l-\rho_v)\,g}} \tag{1}\]

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