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convective boiling, Stephan and Korner correlation, for boiling of binary mixtures, Stiffeners, PD5500 code guidelines for, Stiffeners, against external pressure, EN13445 guidance on, Stirred beds, heat transfer to, Stirred reactor model, for furnaces, Stone's strongly implicit method, Straight fins (longitudinal fins): Stratified gas-liquid flow: Stratified liquid-liquid-gas flow: Steam analysis methods, for shell-side heat transfer and pressure drop in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Stress, compressive, in heat exchanger tubes, Stress corrosion cracking, of stainless steels, Stress equation models, for turbulent boundary layers, Stress-strain curve, for solids, Stress tensor: Stresses: Strip baffles, in tube bundles with longitudinal flow, Strouhal number, Subchannel analysis, for critical heat flux in rod bundles, Subcooled boiling: Subcooling: Sublayer, viscous, Submerged combustion, Successive over-under relaxation method for solution of implicit equations, Suction: Suction line exchangers in refrigeration, Sulfur: Sulfur compounds (organic): Sulfur dioxide: Sulfur hexafluoride: Sulfur trioxide: Supercritical fluids: Superficial velocity, in multiphase flow, Superheated gases: Superheated liquid, in metastable state, Superheated vapor, condensation of, on vertical surface, Supersaturation, as cause of fogging in condensers: Suppression of nucleate boiling, Surface catalysis, in augmentation of heat transfer, Surface condensers, Surface finish: Surface, hydraulically smooth, Surface material, effect on fouling, Surface models, in radiative heat transfer, Surface modification for drag reduction, Surface temperature, effect on fouling, Surface tension: Surfactants, in drag reduction, Suspension, radiation interaction phenomena in, Sutherland formula, for viscosity variation with temperature, Sutterby fluid (non-Newtonian), free convective heat transfer to, Swirling flow, in augmentation of heat transfer, Synthetic heat transfer media, Synthetic mixture heat transfer media,

Index

HEDH
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S
Saddle supports, for heat exchangers, Safety factors, Safety, of heat exchangers: Salicyl aldehyde: Salts, heat transfer, as heat transfer media, Sand roughness, equivalent, Santotherm, heat transfer media, Sastri and Rao correlation for surface tension, Saturated boiling: Saturated density: Saturated fluids, tables of physical properties, Saturation pressure, Saturation temperature, Saunders, E A D Sauer, H J Jr, Scale formation in heat exchangers, Scaling approximations, in nonisothermal gas radiation, Scattering bed models, for radiative heat transfer from surfaces, Scattering, interaction phenomena with, Scattering coefficient, Schack wide-band model, for gas radiation properties, Schick and Prausnitz method, for critical volume of mixtures, Schlunder, E U Schmidt, F W Schmidt correlation, for heat transfer in in-line banks of high fin tubes, Schmidt number, Schneider, G E, Schrock and Grossman correlations, for forced convective heat transfer in two-phase flow, Schunk, M Schwier, K, Scraped surfaces: Scaling devices, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Seawater physical properties, Seider-Tate equation, for heat transfer in heat exchangers, Selection of heat transfer equipment: Semiconductors, thermal conductivity, Separated flow model: Separation, exergy analysis for, Separators, for use in association with evaporators, Series solutions, for one-dimensional transient conduction, Serrated fins, in plate fin heat exchangers, Shah correlation for boiling, Shah correlation, for boiling in horizontal tubes, Shape factor, in radiative heat transfer between diffuse surfaces, Shear flow, of non-Newtonian fluids, Shear free flow, of non-Newtonian fluids, Shear rate, in fluid, Shear stress: Sheffield, J W, Shelf dryer, Shell-and-tube heat exchanger: Shell-to-baffle clearance, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Shells, for shell-and-tube heat exchangers: Sherwood number Shipes, K V, Short-tube vertical evaporator, Sigma phase embrittlement, of stainless steels, Silicate scales, in heat exchangers, Silicone oils, as heat transfer media, physical properties of, Silver method, for calculation of multicomponent condensation, Similarity theory, Simonis, V, Single-phase fluid flow: Single stage flash evaporation (SSF): Singularities, two-phase gas-liquid pressure drop across, Sink, in radiation: Skid-mounted units, specification of, Skin friction coefficient, Skrinska, A, Slab: Sleeves, internal, for expansion bellows, Slot: Slug flow: Slugging, in fluidized beds, Smith, A A, Smith, R, Smith, R A Smith, O, Snell's law, in radiation, Software, for code design, Solar absorber, Solar reflector, Soldered fins, in double pipe exchangers, Solid fuels, properties of, Solids circulation, in fluidized beds, Solid-gas flow: Solid-liquid flow: Solidification: Solids: Solids circulation, in fluidized beds, Soot blowing, Sound velocity: Source, in radiation: Spacers, in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Spalding, D B, Sparging: Specific enthalpy, Specific entropy: Specific heat capacity, Specific internal energy, Specific volume: Specification of heat exchangers, Spectral absorptivity: Spectral emissivity, in gases, Specular surface, Specular-walled passages, radiative heat transfer in, Spheres: Spherical coordinates, for finite difference equations for conduction, Spherical shells: Spheroids (oblate and prolate), free convective heat transfer from, Spine fins: Spiral heat exchanger: Spirally fluted tubes: Sponge rubber balls, in fouling mitigation, Spray dryers, Sprays, in heat exchangers, Square ducts: Stable equilibrium, of vapor and liquid, Staggered tube banks: Stainless steels, Stanton number Startup: State diagram, for fluidized beds, Static mixers, in heat exchangers, Statically stable foams, Steam, dropwise condensation of, Steam tables, Steam turbine exhaust condensers, Steels, as material of construction, Stefan-Boltzmann constant, Stefan's law, for blackbody radiation, Stegmaier, W, Steiner and Taborek correlation, for forced convective boiling, Stephan and Korner correlation, for boiling of binary mixtures, Stiffeners, PD5500 code guidelines for, Stiffeners, against external pressure, EN13445 guidance on, Stirred beds, heat transfer to, Stirred reactor model, for furnaces, Stone's strongly implicit method, Straight fins (longitudinal fins): Stratified gas-liquid flow: Stratified liquid-liquid-gas flow: Steam analysis methods, for shell-side heat transfer and pressure drop in shell-and-tube heat exchangers, Stress, compressive, in heat exchanger tubes, Stress corrosion cracking, of stainless steels, Stress equation models, for turbulent boundary layers, Stress-strain curve, for solids, Stress tensor: Stresses: Strip baffles, in tube bundles with longitudinal flow, Strouhal number, Subchannel analysis, for critical heat flux in rod bundles, Subcooled boiling: Subcooling: Sublayer, viscous, Submerged combustion, Successive over-under relaxation method for solution of implicit equations, Suction: Suction line exchangers in refrigeration, Sulfur: Sulfur compounds (organic): Sulfur dioxide: Sulfur hexafluoride: Sulfur trioxide: Supercritical fluids: Superficial velocity, in multiphase flow, Superheated gases: Superheated liquid, in metastable state, Superheated vapor, condensation of, on vertical surface, Supersaturation, as cause of fogging in condensers: Suppression of nucleate boiling, Surface catalysis, in augmentation of heat transfer, Surface condensers, Surface finish: Surface, hydraulically smooth, Surface material, effect on fouling, Surface models, in radiative heat transfer, Surface modification for drag reduction, Surface temperature, effect on fouling, Surface tension: Surfactants, in drag reduction, Suspension, radiation interaction phenomena in, Sutherland formula, for viscosity variation with temperature, Sutterby fluid (non-Newtonian), free convective heat transfer to, Swirling flow, in augmentation of heat transfer, Synthetic heat transfer media, Synthetic mixture heat transfer media,
T U V W X Y Z

Introduction

DOI 10.1615/hedhme.a.000457

4.8 COSTING OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
4.8.1 Introduction

A. Background

Perhaps the most important step in the application of heat exchangers to industrial processes is that which occurs at the process design stage. Here, the process designer makes a selection (which often turns out to be the final selection) of the type of heat exchanger which is to be used. In practice, many types can be eliminated at this stage on the grounds of unsuitability for the process; thus, for example, the process pressure may be greater than the maximum operating pressure of some exchanger types. Similarly, the toxicity of the process fluids may be such as to eliminate exchangers where the possibility of leakage occurs (for example through the gaskets of plate-and-frame heat exchangers). However, in most situations, there are several feasible types of heat exchanger available for a given application. Often, the selection is made on the basis of previous practice; thus, if shell-and-tube exchangers have always been used for a particular process application, then a safe option is to use them in any new process plant for the same application. It would be more logical to make a choice on the grounds of capital (and perhaps also operating) cost, but this depends on having sufficiently accurate costing methods at the process design stage. The object of this Section of HEDH is to provide a platform for the presentation of such methods.

Since perhaps the majority of heat exchangers are custom-built (or at least built by integrating mass produced parts) for each application, accurate costing is quite difficult to achieve and is usually done using proprietary computer codes developed and held by the manufacturers. These codes depend on estimation of materials, labour, overheads and shipping costs which are specific to a given manufacturer. However, the dictates of competition generally lead to costs from different manufacturers which are surprisingly similar. Here, one should make a clear distinction between cost and price, the latter being the result of a market judgement by the manufacturer’s sales team. If rapid delivery is required, the price may be much higher than the cost. If, on the other hand, the manufacturer wishes to maintain loading on his plant, they may actually sometimes quote a price which is lower than the cost as a short term measure (often called “buying the job” in the industry). Clearly, such a marketing policy could not be pursued in the longer term! Thus, it is assumed here that, on average over time, the price will be a reasonable reflection of the cost.

There are a number of techniques for carrying out rapid costing of heat exchangers. These include:

  1. Using thermal design data, carry out a costing approximating to the full costing methodology. This could include, for instance, correction factors allowing adjustment of costs for a given design relative to a standard design. This is essentially the methodology given in Section 458, Section 459 and Section 460 for shell-and-tube, air-cooled and plate and frame exchangers respectively.

  2. Base the cost on a predicted heat exchanger area. Here, the prediction is achieved normally by using estimated overall heat transfer coefficient (U) values and determining the surface area A from the relationship.

    \[\label{eq1} A=\dfrac{\dot{Q}}{U\varDelta T_m} \tag{1}\]

    where is the total rate of heat transfer (W) and ΔTm the mean temperature difference.

  3. Base the cost on a predicted heat exchanger volume. Here, the volume (V) can be determined from the following relationship:

    \[\label{eq2} V=\dfrac{\dot{Q}}{B\varDelta T_m} \tag{2}\]

    where B is a volumetric overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m3K).

  4. Base the estimate of cost on cost (C) per unit  /ΔTm. This approach avoids problems in definition of heat exchanger area and allows direct comparison of various heat exchangers for a given duty. The method was originally devised by Hewitt, Guy and Marsland (Hewitt et al., 1982) but has been extensively adopted in later work by the Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU, 1986; ESDU, 1994; ESDU, 1995; ESDU, 1997; ESDU, 1994).

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